Khuensai is the Director of the Shan Herald Agency for News (S.H.A.N.) based in Chiang Mai, Thailand. S.H.A.N. (http://www.shanland.org ) is an independent Shan media group which is not affiliated to any political or armed organization. This essay developed out of conversations with the editor over the past two years, beginning with Khuensai's talk at the 3rd international Think Sangha meeting at which he challenged participants to understand Buddhist non-violence in the face of an unrelenting violent force. We would like to thank Ven.Sao Jotika at the University of London and the Burma Relief Center for providing background material for this essay.

The Problem of Non-violence, Karma, and Self-Defense
"Bad Karma" in Shan State
The Mahosatha Jataka
Was the Buddha Really a Peace Advocate?
Buddhism and the Shan Struggle for Liberation

The Problem of Non-violence, Karma, and Self-Defense
The Buddha is well known for his emphasis on non-violence, as found in the very first precept for all Buddhists, monastic and lay alike, to refrain from doing any harm to any sentient being. As seen in the previous paper on Burma paper, the popular understandings of karma and samsara can be used to create passivity towards suffering, both individual and social. We could consider this kind of teaching positive as it helps prevent the kind of violent political fundamentalism which has plagued Islam. At the same time, however, these teachings have not prevented some Buddhists in Burma from participating in political movements against the British and more recently against the military dictatorship. There are other such cases in which Buddhists have aided anti-state (in China and Japan) or anti-colonial (Vietnam) revolutionary movements. Further, in some places, like Sri Lanka today, Buddhists have actively supported violent warfare.

Still, the core of Buddhist teachings, especially the discourses of the Buddha, have a very strong commitment to non-harm and even a pacifist stance in responding to violence. In one such discourse, King Pasenadi of Kosala, a leading lay devotee of the Buddha and "a friend to whatever is good," decided to launch a counter attack upon receiving word that King Ajatasattu of Magadha was already leading an attack towards his kingdom. In the initial encounter, Pasenadi was defeated and the Buddha reflected, "Victory breeds enmity; the defeated one sleeps badly. The peaceful one sleeps at ease, having abandoned victory and defeat" (S.i.83). In a second encounter, Pasenadi defeated Ajatasattu but took mercy on him and sent him home after disarming his troops. Still the Buddha warned him, "The killer begets a killer; one who conquers, a conqueror. The abuser begets abuse; the reveler, one who reviles. Thus by the unfolding of karma. The plunderer is plundered" (S.i.85). Here it seems the Buddha is discouraging any form of violent reaction, even a defensive one.

Indeed, in one Jataka story, the Buddha-to-be offered the ideal model as a king who allowed invaders to conquer his city declaring, "I want no kingdom that must be kept by doing harm." In the end, the conquering king experienced deep pain at the karma of his violent actions and so freed the king and his city. It is said that the first king's non-violent stance saved numerous lives on both sides by refusing to enter into violent conflict (J.ii.400-403). In this story, we see how an absolute stance towards non-violence can actually lead to the best kind of victory which does not breed enmity and creates a secure peace. Yet this Jataka tale is a myth. How many such scenarios can we find in real history?

The coomon result of such a pacifist stance is what supposedly happened to the Buddha's own people, the Shakyans. They were destroyed by King Pasenadi's son, Vidudabha, because they did not defend themselves (Harvey, 2000, 242). This was foreseen by the Buddha who successfully dissuaded Vidudabha three times, but on Vidudabha's fourth attempt, the Buddha saw the karmic force of the situation as unavoidable. He remarked in the end, "If you regard only the present existence, it was indeed unjust that the Shakyans should die in such a way. What they received, however, was entirely just considering the sin they committed in a previous state of existence [of having thrown poison into the river]" (Dh.A.iv.3). In this story, we see the typical teaching towards karma being applied; that is people experience bad fortune, suffering and death directly as a result of bad karmic deeds in the past.

"Bad Karma" in Shan State
As we have seen in other essays in this issue, such an overly simplified view of karma helps to develop a set of cultural values which legitimize forms of social injustice. This culture not only affirms the self-righteousness of the oppressors but helps to confirm feelings of worthlessness, passivity and disempowerment in the oppressed. The people of Shan State in northeast Burma are a tragic example of this culture, developed out of Buddhism, which legitimizes not only structural oppression by outright direct violence.

The Shan share a rich Theravada Buddhist heritage with their fellow Burmans and the ethnically related Thai and Lao. This heritage also has its own distinct aspects with early Mahayana influences as well as texts and a teaching tradition all in their native language. However, since the emergence of military dictatorship in Burma over forty years ago, the distinct and independent nature of Shan Buddhism, and Shan culture in general, has been under attack. Although the Burmese military regime has declared that there is religious freedom throughout Burma, they have actually been preventing ethnic minorities from practicing their culture. In Shan State, Buddhism is traditionally taught in the native language, so the monks have usually taught the people to read Shan. However, monks are not able to do this freely now. The teaching of Shan is restricted throughout Shan State, and even monks must ask special permission from the authorities to teach Shan to villagers in their communities. Even if they are given permission, they are suspected of being subversive.

The military regime wants to assimilate everyone into the Burmese Buddhist system. They have given an order that if monks in Shan State want to become abbots, they must pass monastic exams in the Burmese language. However, the Shan have their own monastic exams, organized by the Shan religious ruling body in Pang Long, but the state does not want to recognize them. The military regime has also introduced a law that monks from Burma can only go to study abroad if they are over thirty-five and if they have passed the Burmese monastic exams. This clearly discriminates against Shan monks.

The Shans have a saying: "Where there is a village, there must be a temple and monks." It is deeply rooted in the culture. However, in some parts of Shan State, the regime has forcibly relocated hundreds of thousands of people from the countryside to the towns. The relocated villagers have been forced not only to abandon their homes and fields, but also the temples and monks that form the heart of their community. This has been like destroying the soul of the people. After the villages were deserted, the Burmese troops have looted many of the temples. They have stolen the Buddha images and decorations, and they have burned the ancient Shan texts. Nearly all the novices studying at the temples have disrobed immediately, since they have had to follow their families to the relocation sites. Many of the monks have also disrobed out of fear of being killed by the military. The Burmese troops suspect that all Shan monks support the resistance. In March 1997, several monks were killed, such as Ven. Yanna from Kengkham Temple who was put in a sack and drowned.

The military officers of the regime are often seen in the state media taking part in Buddhist ceremonies. This is basically using religion to exert power over others. For example in Shan State, they have been building pagodas in many places. These pagodas are built in the Burmese style, not the Shan style, and have Burmese names. They are clearly planned to represent Burmese domination of the area and to subvert traditional religious customs.

In 1997 in Kunhing, Central Shan State, many monks were invited by the Burmese authorities to attend the "ground-breaking" ceremony to start building the "Maha Kanbawza Pyi Nyein Aye" Pagoda (meaning "Peaceful Shanland" in Burmese). That year there had been heavy fighting in the area between the Shan resistance and the Burmese military. So in order to pacify the people they chose to build the pagoda then, at that place, and under that name,. The was built in the style of the Shwedagon Pagoda in Rangoon. Many Burmese military officers came to the ceremony, including General Maung Aye. The time and date chosen for the ceremony was at 9 a.m. on the 9th day of the 9th month (according to the lunar calendar) - nine being the auspicious number of the regime. In this way, the regime shows its greater interest in astrology rather than in real Buddhist teachings. During the actual groundbreaking, according to custom, monks and local people should have buried valuables under the pagoda, but they were all kept away during this part. Only the military officers performed the ceremony. The local people all felt very suspicious and uncomfortable. They suspected the officers were putting in something evil. Then afterwards, the local villagers were forced to build the pagoda, even children. In this way, it seems clear that the religious activities performed by the regime have nothing to do with real Buddhism. (Burma Relief Centre, 1999)
As part of this process of "Burmanization", many ethnically Burman monks have been sent into Shan State. These monks, who have links to the military, tend to emphasize patience or equanimity (upekkha) towards the trouble in this region and also use the teaching of karma to explain present sufferings. Some Shan monks have supported the resistance to the military government. However, there is still a prevalent view among the Shan people inculcated by Buddhism that to recruit soldiers for resisting the Burmese military is evil, because it means taking part in killing and the creation of more bad karma in the future. In turn, they have developed a sense of fatalism that their suffering is due to bad karma from a past life. The idea of past karma has been used to make the people submissive, so they are waiting for a savior, unable to liberate themselves. Non-violence (ahimsa) has been interpreted here as passivity, so instead of fighting for their rights, the people are fleeing.

It is this kind of interpretation of karma and non-violence that makes one question what is a proper Buddhist response to direct violence, especially in extreme cases such as the systematic rape of women in Burma by the Burmese military. The Dalai Lama at present and the Buddhist movement in Vietnam during the 1960s have been serious attempts to develop a comprehensive and systematic response to violence. However, the results are inconclusive with the Vietnamese movement being crushed and the Tibetan movement unable to significantly change Chinese policy. In the Shan case, it is clear that the doctrine of karma is being used to warp the idea of non-violence and non-harming into one of passivity and fatalism in the face of direct violence.

The Mahosatha Jataka
Another Jataka story, the Mahosatha Jataka (J.vi.546), offers us a way to explore more deeply this problem of karma and the way to respond to more direct forms of violence. He was named Mahosatha "Noble Cure" by his parents, Siriwattana and Sumana Devi, whose town was east of Mitthila, the capital of the land of Videha. His wisdom spread far and wide, and in time the king summoned him to his place to serve as a minister. His presence, however, was resented by other ministers. A scramble for royal favor finally ended with Mahosatha gaining power. Yet he was generous enough to pardon his erstwhile enemies by reinstating them in their former offices. He was appointed regent when it became clear to the king that he entertained no ambition to usurp his throne, and so he set out to do his best in this position.

Mahosatha came to learning through his spies that King Culani of Kapila, about 1,000 miles to the north of Videha, was planning to subdue all the 101 lands far and near and make himself supreme ruler. Mahosatha thus began to face the eventual offensive that was to come to his land and his people. Assisted by his capable minister Kewat, King Culani conquered all the lands except Videha within a span of 7 years. Then he launched three successive offensives against Videha all of which failed, thanks to Mahosatha.

Undaunted, Culani resorted to win Videha by ruse. He decided to offer his daughter to his counterpart as queen and to take him prisoner instead when he was to pay a formal visit to Pancala, the royal capital of Kapila, to ask for his daughter's hand. Foreseeing the scheme, Mohasatha decided to play along by gaining Culani's consent to allow him to set up a temporary citadel on the border between Videha and Kapila. Taking advantage of the proximity of the enemy's capital, Mahosatha constructed a system of tunnels that led to Culani's palace from which he planned to abduct the queen and her daughter.

At last, the date for the wedding was fixed and King Videha traveled to his temporary residence at the citadel. On cue, Culani surrounded the citadel with thousands of troops and demanded his submission. The defenders, instead of complying with his ultimatum, took hold of Culani's queen, daughter and close relatives and countered with their own ultimatum to lay down his arms. A truce was eventually declared between the two sides, after which Mahosatha defeated Culani in a duel conducted in private. In sparing Culani's life and honor, the vanquished accepted the following conditions: to free the enslaved kings, to restore the conquered lands back to them, and to conclude an treaty of peace and amity among the lands.

There afterwards, all the lands and their peoples lived together in peaceful co-existence. And Mahosatha, in his subsequent final life as a prince of northern India, became the Lord Buddha, the supreme teacher of all people.

Was the Buddha Really a Peace Advocate?

It was on this story and the moral behind it that I have modeled my life: to love all human beings but to protect one's country and people; to work for peace but to never hesitate to apply force when it is necessary. Moreover, this Jataka fits in with what I learned during my own three-year quest for a truth in which I could take refuge.

At one point in my youth, I was about to give up the struggle against the Burmese rulers because of our own Shan intra-party intrigues, not unlike experienced by the Mahosatha. In fact, I was suspected of treason and thrown in jail for almost four years by the resistance leadership, namely the Shan United Revolutionary Army's executive council led by General Gawngzoeng. I regard this order for my imprisonment as a mistake which turned out to be a good one, because without that incarceration, I wouldn't have become what I am today.

During this time, my suffering was basically spiritual, because no one abused me physically. I considered myself innocent and felt bitter for being humiliated in this way. It would have been better if they had killed me. My bitterness filled me with bitter thoughts which kept me awake day in and day out. As a result, I gradually lost my appetite and became ill. One day, a medic who was treating me tried to cheer me up, but from the corner of my eye, I saw him shaking his head to other inmates. The meaning was clear: I was going downhill and only a miracle would bring me back to life.

Facing this reality, I began to ask myself whether I should let my illness take care of all my troubles once and for all. Somehow I felt that it would be a shame to go down that way without a fight and decided to take things into my own hands. I reflected that I was ill because I didn't eat; I didn't eat because I had lost my appetite through sleepless nights; and I didn't sleep because my mind was filled with bitter thoughts. The solution, therefore, was to shut my mind off to the bitter thoughts so that I could go to sleep. I then remembered that when I was a child and had trouble falling asleep, I used to count my breathing: inhale-1, exhale-2 and so on until sleep just overtook me. That first night I counted to about 800 and fell asleep. The next day I felt better and a little hungry and started to take food. The feeling that I had that day was so nice, so tranquil and yet happy, that I decided to go on with the breathing exercises.

As the exercises progressed my mind became more lucid, I was able to remember things that I had already forgotten, like when I was at two years old, I gave away my gold necklace to a thief who was gently asking for it. My mother later said she felt thankful that the thief had not done anything cruel to me. As I continued to get better, I also learned to read and write Thai, improved my English, and learned to read verses written in old Shan.

Then, just before my 29th birthday, something happened. I realized that I was not able either to stop my breathing or go on with it indefinitely. Things that start have to end (anicca). I had tried to resist this, the way things go, and I suffered (dukkha). The whole thing was holding me under bondage (anatta). I pondered this over as I breathed in and out, and suddenly, these three natural truths all came to me. So on my 29th birthday, I declared what others before me had: “I take my refuge in the Buddha; I take my refugee in the Dhamma, and I take my refuge in the Sangha.” Since them, I have been born anew.

During this period, I discovered what I call the Seven Triplets, which are as follows:

1. Beings are always looking for prosperity (whether spiritual or material), happiness and freedom (the choice triplets)

2. But they almost always encounter adversity, suffering and bondage (the inevitable triplets)

3. The root causes of these inevitable triplets are greed, susceptibility and ignorance (the causative triplets)　

4. The only way to overcome the root causes and achieve the choice triplets is through self-discipline, attention and learning (the means triplets).

5. One must train oneself in this direction by taking control of one's physical, verbal and mental actions (the tool triplets).

6. One must not only work for one's good but also that of one's community (nation) and the world (the object triplets).

7. One who is not yet enlightened may slip at times. One must therefore take refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha (the refuge triplets)

These triplets were how I came to perceive the Four Noble Truths of the Lord Buddha who first enunciated them soon after his attainment of enlightenment and later in different wordings but always retaining the original theme.

Coming to the Four Noble Truths, one is inevitably reminded of the Middle Way that the Lord Buddha took pains to highlight. Here, many I think are led to believe that the Middle Way means to avoid the extremes of sensual pleasure and self-mortification only. However, had the Buddha been talking not to a group of austere hermits but to others, say a capitalist and a communist, I'm sure the he would have put it quite another way. The same would have applied when speaking to advocates of peaceful means and those of forceful means.

In this respect, the Buddha and the many Buddha-to-bes from the Jatakas employed whichever method was suitable to the occasion. The only criterion was that actions were not affected by greed, susceptibility and ignorance. He was also careful that actions pointed toward the good of himself (to attain buddhahood), his kin, and the world. Today's catchphrase, "Think globally, Act locally", would have gone fine with the Buddha who counseled to love all beings and to work for the good of kinsfolk (because they are the nearest beings that you have). This did not prevent him from admonishing his followers to not be overly attached to their own kin (e.g. the Metta Sutta).

If one still has doubts about the Buddha’s stance on peace and force, one should remember that although there is no doubt he was a peace advocate, he was also not above using his own muscleman, Moggalana, for dealing with extremely unruly disciples. The scriptures also name dedicated followers who achieved the path despite being warriors. Maha Siha, the commander-in-chief of Vesali, was credited as being a sotapanna, one who has entered the first stage in the realization of nibbana. I think it is important that we do not judge a person as wicked just because he or she has been forced to use forceful means.

Buddhism and the Shan Struggle for Liberation

Following my release from incarceration in 1978, the leadership allowed us to decide on our own future. Accordingly, some left, but I stayed on. I decided that leaving the struggle would amount to renouncing the Buddha's teachings and example and resolved to fight on in the capacity that I was most suited: propagation of the Buddha’s teachings in the way that I understood. Two years later, I was given the job to set up the Institute for Leadership. That was when was able to convey my convictions to students.

It was General Gawnzoeng himself who supported the Institute for Leadership Project. He and I ended up becoming close friends until his death in 1991 as both of us were firm believers of the Buddha’s teachings. We taught the students, most of whom were officers and promising new members of the struggle, politics, war, administration, history and conscientization. I personally handled the conscientization in which I focused on the theme that one should consider oneself a Buddhist only when one stops to help one's own people. I taught my students that the same rule applies to other religions. For example, Jesus might have taught about universal love, but he also worked personally for the good of his own people, as did Mohammed. Furthermore, I taught them that if you want to be free, you have to learn (panna). To learn, you must be able to concentrate (samadhi). To concentrate, you need an undisturbed calm. You must therefore make and follow rules (sila) that enable you to create and maintain this calm. This method has been effective in all my classes. I have never made rules for the students. They have done so by themselves.

As most Shans are Buddhists, though admittedly bad ones because they just follow their parents’ custom of being Buddhist, I was convinced that some, if not all, would get the message. Of course, I wasn't expecting everyone who learned the Buddha’s teachings to take up arms. I myself was holding a chalk or a pen most of the time. However, in 1996, one faction of the resistance decided to surrender but the other led by most of my former students have remained to fight on to this day.

I don't think every one of my students wants to become a Buddha. Yet I believe most of them would be happy becoming arahants, who are in fact little buddhas. Still as believers they must follow the basics: do for the good of oneself, one’s community and the world. This means that when there is no need or opportunity to do for the good of the community and the world, you have to strive to attain for your own good (i.e. liberation). However, when there is a need and opportunity to do good for the community and the world, you must always answer the call. Instead of accepting your situation as karmic fate which must be endured, I want people to engage as Mahosatha did, striving onward tirelessly on the bodhisattva path.

I have always believed that everyone is good at something and that s/he must make the most of it for him/herself, his/her people and the world around him/her. Everyone has a role to play whether as a farmer, businessperson, soldier, doctor, monk or teacher. The more we have such enlightened people in every possible field, the quicker the victory of our people will be. In this way, Burmans, Shans and other neighbors will be able to live together in peace.

References:
Burma Relief Centre. (December 1999) Destroying the Soul of Our People. Newsletter # 15.

The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. (2000). (Bodhi, Trans.). Boston: Wisdom Publications.

Harvey, P. (2000) An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.